The critical challenge鈥攁nd opportunity鈥攐f battery end-of-life in a clean energy future.
By Morgan McCarthy, JD
Electric vehicles (EVs) are rapidly transforming global transportation, cutting greenhouse gas emissions, and reducing reliance on fossil fuels. But behind this revolution lies a critical and under-addressed issue: what happens to the battery when it dies?
Each year, more EV batteries reach end-of-life, many weighing more than 1,000 pounds and packed with valuable and volatile materials. Without a robust recovery system in place, too many are stockpiled, landfilled, or exported, posing environmental hazards and wasting critical minerals like lithium, cobalt, and nickel.
The path forward is not just about cleaner transportation. It is also about closing the loop on the very components that power it.
Image courtesy of Raftelis.
The Magnitude of the Problem
An EV battery can weigh between 600 and 1,500 pounds and includes a dense mix of lithium, cobalt, nickel, and manganese. These materials are critical to performance鈥攂ut hazardous when
mishandled.
While designed to last eight to 15 years, most EV batteries in the U.S. are not recycled through closed-loop systems. As of 2024, fewer than 5 percent are processed in a way that recovers materials for new battery production. The rest?
鈥� Stockpiled due to lack of planning
鈥� Shipped overseas to countries with weak environmental oversight
鈥� Improperly landfilled, where they risk leaks and fires via thermal runaway (a chain reaction responsible for warehouse fires in Arizona, Germany, and elsewhere)
By 2030, more than 2 million metric tons of EV batteries will reach end-of-life every year鈥攅quivalent in weight to 500,000 full-size SUVs. That is not just a disposal problem, it is also a resource loss. These metals are energy-intensive to mine and often sourced from geopolitically unstable or ethically problematic regions.
Where We Stand Today: A Mounting Challenge
Despite the risks, the U.S. still lacks a national framework for lithium-ion battery disposal. Unlike lead-acid batteries鈥攃overed by well-established take-back laws鈥擡V batteries exist in a legal gray zone. Currently, most used EV batteries in the U.S. are:
鈥� Held in storage by manufacturers awaiting regulatory clarity
鈥� Exported to low-cost countries with minimal oversight
鈥� Disposed of in ways that violate best practices and pose long-term risks
Meanwhile, electrification is accelerating. Automakers like GM, Volvo, and Hyundai have pledged to go all-electric within the next 10 to 15 years. Public transit, delivery fleets, and ride-share platforms are all shifting to electric. Yet, our national infrastructure for end-of-life battery collection, routing, and recycling has not caught up. The gap is growing, and fast.
Taking Action Today: What Municipalities and Consumers Can Do
While we wait for national policy, local action matters. Here are tangible steps:
1. If You Own or Plan to Buy an EV:
鈥� Ask your dealership if they participate in battery take-back programs or partner with certified recyclers.
鈥� Support automakers like Ford, BMW, Nissan, and GM that are building circular supply chains with partners like Redwood Materials and Li-Cycle.
鈥� Never toss lithium-ion batteries (including those from e-bikes or scooters) into the trash. Use local hazardous waste drop-offs or approved recyclers.
2. If You are a Municipal or Regional Waste Professional:
鈥� Expand Household Hazardous Waste (HHW) programs to accept lithium-ion batteries.
鈥� Implement fire-safe storage and transport protocols.
鈥� Collaborate with state agencies to identify gaps and pursue funding.
鈥� Launch education campaigns explaining battery risks and collection options.
Case in point: San Jose, CA has integrated lithium-ion batteries into its HHW program and partnered with certified processors. In just two years, the city diverted more than 20 tons of lithium-ion batteries while reaching more than 60,000 residents through public outreach.
Federal Funding: Still Active, But Uncertain
Despite new political headwinds in Washington, several federal funding programs supporting battery recycling and infrastructure remain available:
1. Bipartisan Infrastructure Law (BIL)鈥�$3 Billion
鈥� Funds are active for battery material processing, regional recycling hubs, and workforce development.
鈥� A second round of funding announced in 2025 includes $725 million for critical materials recovery.
2. Inflation Reduction Act (IRA)鈥擯otentially Expiring
鈥� Continues to offer EV tax credits and incentives for recycled battery content but faces legislative threats. The House has passed a bill proposing early phase-outs and new EV registration fees.
3. DOE Battery Recycling Prize and Li-Bridge Initiative
鈥� Support public-private partnerships, advanced recycling technologies, and second-life applications.
鈥� Remain key tools for universities, municipalities, and startups building domestic battery recycling capacity.
Example: Ascend Elements鈥� Georgia facility secured a $480 million DOE grant to scale cathode manufacturing using recycled content.
Tip: Visit grants.gov and energy.gov for real-time funding opportunities.
A Surge in Private-Sector Innovation
In the absence of federal mandates, the private sector is moving forward. Major players are investing in scalable infrastructure to recover battery materials and reduce reliance on raw extraction:
鈥� Redwood Materials (NV and SC)鈥擣ounded by former Tesla CTO JB Straubel, it recovers up to 98 percent of critical materials. Its SC facility will be among North America鈥檚 largest.
鈥� Ascend Elements (GA and KY)鈥擟onverts used batteries into new cathode materials through a 鈥渉ydro-to-cathode鈥� process. Their facilities can supply enough cathode material annually for 750,000 EVs.
鈥� Li-Cycle (AZ and NY)鈥擴ses a modular hub-and-spoke model for efficient hydrometallurgical processing. Major partners include GM, LG Energy Solution, and Glencore.
Second-Life Strategies: Not All Retired Batteries Are Done
Not all lithium-ion batteries need to be immediately dismantled. Many still retain up to 80 percent of their original capacity, opening the door for second-life uses:
鈥� Stationary energy storage: Companies like B2U Storage Solutions in California use second-life EV batteries for grid support.
鈥� Community microgrids: Renault and Nissan have repurposed batteries to provide backup power for buildings and public transit.
鈥� Disaster response: Used EV batteries can offer flexible backup energy for shelters and emergency response infrastructure.
This interim step extends battery life, reduces waste, and offers affordable storage solutions for utilities and underserved communities.
Global Benchmarking: How the EU Is Leading
While the U.S. is still catching up, the European Union is moving aggressively on battery stewardship:
鈥� The EU Battery Regulation (2023) mandates that all EV batteries sold in the EU meet minimum recycled content standards by 2030.Manufacturers are now responsible for battery collection, reporting, and recycling rates.
鈥� A new digital battery passport will track each battery鈥檚 lifecycle and material origin鈥攂oosting transparency and traceability.
In contrast, the U.S. has no federal Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) law for EV batteries and no national tracking system. A similar regulatory approach could help the U.S. ensure transparency, consistency, and closed-loop recovery.
Remaining Barriers to Scalable Solutions
Despite momentum, several systemic barriers remain:
鈥� Safety Risks: Improper storage and transport can cause fires. Many fire departments lack training or containment equipment.
鈥� Design Complexity: Some batteries are welded or glued in place, making removal costly and hazardous.
鈥� Lack of National Logistics: There is no federal framework for collection, routing, or processing.
鈥� Cost Competitiveness: Virgin materials from low-regulation markets are often cheaper than recycled inputs.
Until these are addressed, scaling a truly circular battery ecosystem will remain a challenge.
The Path Forward Starts Now
The EV revolution is well underway. However, without a comprehensive plan for battery end-of-life, we risk compromising the environmental gains EVs promise. We have the tools:
鈥� Proven technologies.
鈥� Scalable business models.
鈥� Active (though uncertain) funding.
鈥� And powerful private-sector momentum.
Now we need alignment鈥攚ith consistent federal policy, strong local engagement, and widespread public education. What you can do today includes:
鈥� Municipal Leaders: Apply for DOE grants, expand HHW programs, and partner with certified recyclers.
鈥� Policymakers: Finalize the EPA鈥檚 universal waste rule and pursue national EPR legislation.
鈥� Consumers: Ask where your battery goes鈥攁nd support automakers with circular answers.
鈥� Industry Leaders: Keep building, scaling, and proving the viability of circular systems.
The EV age is charging forward. Let鈥檚 make sure we have a sustainable plan for what powers it鈥攁nd what comes next. | WA
Morgan McCarthy is a seasoned solid waste and sustainability professional with more than 18 years of experience driving complex, high-impact projects across the public and private sectors. With a background in law and a deep understanding of environmental systems, Morgan brings a unique blend of regulatory insight and operational strategy. She specializes in solid waste master planning, regulatory compliance, contract negotiation, and the development of RFPs and franchise agreements. Morgan has successfully guided dozens of municipalities through transformative initiatives that enhance service delivery, reduce environmental impact, and stand up to legal and financial scrutiny. Her portfolio includes drafting and negotiating multimillion-dollar agreements, leading regional waste audits, and spearheading Zero Waste planning efforts. Morgan can be reached at [email protected].
References
- BloombergNEF. (2023). Electric Vehicle Outlook 2023. https://about.bnef.com/electric-vehicle-outlook/
- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). (2023). Used Lithium-Ion Batteries. www.epa.gov/recycle/used-lithium-ion-batteries
- U.S. Department of Energy (DOE). (2024). Battery Recycling Prize and Li-Bridge Initiative. www.energy.gov/eere/vehicles/battery-recycling-prize, www.energy.gov/mesc/li-bridge
- U.S. Department of Energy (DOE). (2023). Bipartisan Infrastructure Law Battery Materials Processing and Manufacturing Program. www.energy.gov/mesc/battery-materials-processing-and-battery-manufacturing
- Internal Revenue Service (IRS). (2023). Inflation Reduction Act of 2022: Clean Vehicle Credit. www.irs.gov/credits-deductions/credits-for-new-clean-vehicles-purchased-in-2023-or-after
- Redwood Materials. (2024). Company Overview and Newsroom. www.redwoodmaterials.com/newsroom/
- Ascend Elements. (2024). Technology and Impact. https://ascendelements.com/
- Li-Cycle. (2024). Our Recycling Process. https://li-cycle.com/technology/
- Call2Recycle. (2024). Battery Recycling Laws by State. www.call2recycle.org/recycling-laws-by-state/
- European Commission. (2023). Regulation (EU) 2023/1542 of the European Parliament and of the Council on batteries and waste batteries. https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:32023R1542
- The Verge. (2023). Redwood Materials partners with Ford, BMW, and Panasonic. www.theverge.com/2023/9/19/24248302/redwood-materials-battery-recycling-partnership
- National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL). (2023). Second-Life Applications for Lithium-Ion Batteries. www.nrel.gov/transportation/battery-second-life.html
- City of San Jose Environmental Services Department. (2023). Household Hazardous Waste Program Overview. www.sanjoseca.gov
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